Lost Cities Of Ancient America: The Major Cultures
Subject Index: Aztec • Maya • Inca

Introduction To The Aztec Cities

Aztec Empire

The ancient Aztec people greatly valued superior work and craftsmanship.  This is reflected in their architecture and is most noticeable in their religious buildings.  The Aztecs' main purpose for creating their products was to honor their gods.  In this section, we will  examine their city layout, their religious structures since they were of such great importance, and the materials they used.

Aztec Urban Planning and Layout

Early Aztec Capital Cities:

As a general rule, Aztecs' capital cities were formally planned at the center and random at the outskirts.  There was a rectangular public plaza in the center of the city that was bordered with civic and religious buildings.  Outside this central area were schools, dwellings, markets, and a number of other types of buildings scattered randomly.

Aztec City-State Capitals:

The Aztec city-state capitals "played a more important role in the daily lives of most people than did the distant imperial metropolis."  Because it was closer, peasants could easily come to town to take care of personal, religious , and administrative obligations.
 
They were normally planned in a similar manor to the capital cities.  They had a central area and the building in this location were arranged with cosmology in mind.  The major temple-pyramid was always placed on the eastern side of this center with the steps facing west along with the temple itself.  Other important buildings also had their own designated places in relation to the cardinal directions.

Tenochtitlan

Tenochtitlan

Tenochtitlan was at first constructed like other city-state capitals with an organized central area and an unorganized region outside the center precincts.  When the Mexicas came to power and Tenochtitlan's population began to grow explosively there was a need to organize.  The Mexicas' decided that, since Tenochtitlan had become the capital of the Aztec civilization, it was time to renovate.  They wanted it to have a renewed splendor and to look prestigious and important.  They decided to renovate it along grid lines.  Not only the central region was renovated to match this grid, but also the outskirts to make the entire city more organized.  The people of Tenochtitlan borrowed a lot of stylistic designs from Teotihuacan and Tula to rebuild their city, including using a grid, certain architectural styles, and sculpture.  The entire city of Tenochtitlan was divided into five quadrants, if you count the center one.  Canals divided the city in the four cardinal directions.  The central plaza was not the only administrative and religious center in Tenochtitlan.  In the center of each of the four surrounding quadrants there was also a central plaza.  The Incas also chose to organize their city layouts along gridlines in their early empire.  (For more information about this see Inca grid pattern below.)

 Outside of the city centers, were the houses of its people.  The houses of the lords and nobles normally surrounded the market places and civic centers.  On the outskirts of the city, there were gardens in the swamps.  By using their superior farming skills, these people made "chinampas" (rectangular patches of earth in the swamp, to cultivate plants for food and to build houses on).  They were able to have very productive planting areas because of this technology.

Aztec Pyramid Types

Aztec Twin Stair Pyramids

In the pyramids that the Aztecs built, the early Aztecs used a style very similar to that of earlier Mesoamerican people of the Classic and Post Classic periods, including the Maya.  There were some differences though.

An example of the twin stair pyramid is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan.  At its summit, it had two temples and a double staircase.  Each temple was dedicated to a separate god.  The one on the left was dedicated to Tlaloc and was decorated with blue and white paint to signify water and moisture.  The Aztecs worshipped him because of his connection with the life giving and taking qualities of the rain.  The right temple was dedicated to Huitzilopochti and was painted in red and white to honor war and sacrifice.

This pyramid was so steep that one could not see the temple on top unless they had climbed the pyramid and their head had cleared the platform.  This signified that the gods were so much above the people and earthly things that one could not even come close to them if they were not at the top of the pyramids.  This was because the gods lived in the sky. 

Aztec Round Pyramids

Calixtlahuaca Round Pyramid

Similarly, round structures sometimes appeared in Inca constructions.  For more information about the shapes of Inca buildings see Inca Structures.

Later Aztec Pyramids

Cholula Single Stair Pyramid

The later Aztec builders, deviated from their twin stair designs, and built pyramids with a single set of steps.

Aztec Building Materials

Materials Used In Building Tenochtitlan

Building materials were generally obtained the region where the Aztecs lived, but were also traded for.  In Tenochtitlan the Mexicas traded swamp delicacies such as frogs, algae, and fish for building materials.  Rocks and fill were also brought to Tenochtitlan from the shore to reclaim land for chinampas (gardens) and houses.

Materials Used In Building Other Aztec Cities

In most Aztec cities, the people used wood found in uninhabited regions (nearby vast forests).  Generally pine or oak would be used for making support beams and doorjambs. They also used plaster, adobes, and lime.  Obsidian (a volcanic glass like rock found in the foothills of Otumba and other regions), was also popular as an adornment.  They also used rubble and loose stone from coastal regions.

General Construction of Aztec Pyramid-Temples

Ancient Mayan pyramids and temples were designed similarly.

Conclusion

Through archaeological and anthropological research, today people are able to learn about what the ancient Aztec were like.  Because their history is a thing of the past, we are unable to be sure exactly how they lived in every detail, but scientists are able to understand much of their history based on ancient and historical writings, archaeological investigation, and by questioning decedents of the ancient Aztecs.  As far as we know, the Aztecs became great builders through centuries of learning and experimentation.  They were superior craftsmen and used their skills to honor their rulers and gods, creating magnificent structures, and using cosmic events as planning tools.  Most modern people make the mistake of believing that it was all done without engineering know-how, but, just as in Egypt, these were precise and sophisticated peoples.

Aztec Bibliography

• Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs.  Cambridge:  Blackwell Publishers Inc., 1996.
• Townsend, Richard F.  THE AZTECS.  London:  Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1992.
• Vaillant, George C.  Aztecs of Mexico.  New York:  Doubleday & Company Inc., 1953.

Mayan Culture

Types of  Maya Religious Structures

Mayan Pyramids

The ancient Mayans built two types of pyramids, those that were meant to be climbed and those that were not.  The first type was used for holding sacrificial rituals (such as Chichen Itza).  The other type was not meant to be touched and was sacred (such as Tikal).  The steps on theses structures were too steep to climb and many times they had doorways leading to nowhere.  During their rituals, the priests would ascend the pyramid from the earth to the sky by means of staircases.  They believed that this brought them closer to the gods.

Very Steep Stair Pyramid AT Tikal

These staircases lead from ground level to the temple.  The number of staircases that the pyramids had varied, but there were typically two or four.  Many times there would be a platform connecting the steps somewhere near the middle of the pyramid so that the priest-king could stop and do a part of his ritual before continuing to the top.

Aside from having religious functions, Mayan pyramids also had other purposes.  The pyramids were built so high that their tops could be seen protruding out of the jungle.  Because of this, the Mayan people were able to use them as landmarks.  That was not the only significance of building them so high though.  They also served as a reminder that the gods were ever present. (they also allowed the elite to rise above the smell of rotting human flesh!)

Some pyramids even house burial chambers for high ranking officials.  Housed inside these mammoth structures were small burial rooms.  There were narrow corridors that led to these chambers.  These burial chambers often contained treasures such as jade or gold.

Aztec pyramids were comparatively similar to ones of the Maya.  One exception is that the Aztecs often built two or more temples at the top while the Mayan pyramids generally had one.  The similarity is, in part based upon the architecture of the Toltecs that came before them both.

Easier Stair Pyramid Chichen Itza

The Mayan Temple

Mayan temples, similar to those of the Aztecs, normally housed altars or stone platforms where the priests would perform their sacrificial rituals to their god.  On the wall behind the platform there would be a painted representation of the god of that city.  The people of each Mayan city paid homage to their own god.

Mayan Construction

Mayan Construction Labor

Aside from the general laborers and priests, the Mayans (like the Incas) also had specialized workers, such as architects who would also oversee the construction of these buildings.  The Mayans were not, however, credited for first creating the initial design of the pyramid.  There were other cultures, such as the Olmecs who were building a variation of the pyramid a thousand years before the Mayans (though the first pyramids were constructed in Caral in Peru).  The Mayans refined the art of pyramid building.  They made them more complex and intricate.

Mayan Building Materials

    The Mayan people also used mortar on their construction projects.  They made the mortar by burning limestone in a very sophisticated process.  They layered the limestone with wood and put a cylinder or pipe up the middle of the stack (to feed air to the fire).  Next they burned the pile to make the mortar.  To the Mayans the outside appearance of their buildings was much or more important than the inside.  The temples were decorated with roof combs  which sat at the top  outside edge along the front side of the temple (at the top of the pyramid).  The mortar was also used to finish the outside of buildings, coat floors, and make sculptures.  The mortar also helped cement everything in place.  Unfortunately, in more humid areas the stucco deteriorated quickly due to the dampness (yet some remained).

Mayan Construction Tools

The Incas built their structures without the help of the plumb bob, and also (apparently) did not roll heavy stones on logs as the Mayans did. 

Mayan Building Style

The Mayan architects did not build in right angles as we do today.  They relied heavily on bilateral symmetry.  (This means if you cut a building right down the middle each half would look like a mirror image of the other side).  They would also build one temple over another (using the old as a foundation for the next).  There could be several temple mounds or pyramids under one pyramid.  Some of the pyramids became very large in this way, others were purpose built to size.

The general view of the Mayan construction process was that the peasants would build the platform first.  The temples and palaces were build on top.  The structures then refined with stones that they pulled from the quarry, and mortar to product flat surfaces and adornments.

The First Maya Temple At Cerros

Cerros Pyramid in Belize

The first Maya pyramid was constructed in Cerros.  First, the foundation was laid consisting of layer after layer of white earth.  This was done in the same way the peasants made the foundation for their own huts.  Then they shattered locally manufactured and imported pottery and put it into the earth where the temple was to be constructed, and also put flowers from fruit trees on the earth as an offering.  Next they would put flat, hard stones on top of the foundation to make a pavement.  The platform was built on top of this pavement.  Then they built internal walls and filled them with white earth and pottery mixed in with broken, course limestone from the quarry, to make the structure sturdy.  By stabilizing each layer, they did not have to worry about is collapsing with the addition of the next layer (per Linda Schele).

Mayan Astrological and Religious Connections

Mayan buildings also have significant mythical importance.  The Mayans believed that the pyramids were representations of mountains:  temples represented caves to the underworld, doorways represented monster mouths and both were decorated accordingly.

The Maya were truly advanced in some areas, yet primitive in others.  They found their way to accomplish great tasks, yet their cities died at regular intervals.  All civilizations go through a phase of building on gigantic scale.  The Mayans took this to great heights by using bright, colorful, painted decorations throughout.  And they were constructed to last.

Mayan Bibliography

• Benson, Elizabeth P.  The Maya World.   1967.
• Hernandez, Xavier.  A Mayan Town Through History.  1992.
• Neufeldt, Victoria.  Webster's New World Dictionary.  1995.
• Schele, Linda and Freidel, David.  A Forest of Kings:  The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya.  1990.
• Sharer, Robert J.  Daily Life of Maya Civilization.  1996.
• Stierlin, Henri.  Living Architecture:  Mayan.  1964.
• Stuart, Gene S. and George E.  Lost Kingdoms of the Maya.  1993.

The Inca Empire

Inca City Layouts

Inca Grid Pattern City Layout

Like the Aztecs, the Incas sometimes used a grid pattern to lay out their inner cities.  Although it was not common in either societies, it was used occasionally.  In the grid pattern, the streets were designed to cross one another at 90 degree angles.  Some anthropologists believe that use of the grid method was adopted from previous cultures since it has been found elsewhere.  In the Inca city of Cuzco, the central sector was reengineered using such a grid patten.  Comparatively, the inner part of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlan was also reconstructed using a grid pattern.
 
Many cultures used the grid pattern to arrange their cities.  Many believe it was the obvious simplicity of it that led these cultures to choosing this arrangement, and the intrusion of ideas from other  trading cultures.  But clearly, the Inca had opportunity to integrate ideas from their conquests.

Inca Radial Pattern City Layout

The Incas used the radial pattern more often than the grid pattern for city arrangement.  Anthropologists believe that it was a later form of city arrangement because the best examples of this are found far from Cuzco.  Although, the area outside of the central region of Cuzco is arranged in a radial pattern.
 
The radial pattern spreads out from the center like the spokes of a wheel where all things radiate from a single point, this point is typically a Ushnu platform (temple) in the middle of a plaza.  Because this central point is typically occupied by a ritual structure, it is suggested that the point of origin is highly symbolic.
 
This pattern was used widely across the Inca Empire and was used as a formal model for settlements in conquered regions as well.

Inca Structures

Large or small, the typical Inca structure was a rectangular building with a single room.  There was usually one door in the middle of a long wall.  If it was a very long room, they sometimes used more than one door.  Most of these structures had only a single floor, but there are some exceptions to this.  For example, if the structure was built on a hill side a second floor might be added so that they would have a means to access the upper floor more easily.

The roofs on these buildings were mostly thatched.  In the highland areas, the roofs sloped steeply to allow rain to run off.

The Incas used other geometrical shapes at times, just as the Aztecs, and others did.  There were round and "u" shaped buildings, but just as it was for the Aztecs these shapes were not dominant.

Inca Construction

Inca Labor

All of this labor and planning was directed by architects and master stone masons under the Inca's (king's) supervision.  These workers were highly skilled in their occupations.  They built fortresses, temples, and palaces for their Inca throughout the empire (such as Tambo Colorado).

The work of unskilled workers was of great importance also.  There was a lot of work that went into building each structure.  A large number of unskilled workers were needed to help quarry rocks, move them, and raise them into position.

Almost all structures that are considered to be Inca today were probably built after the year 1440 A.D.  The Inca used an abundant state workforce based on a system of rotational labor (a kind of taxation) to supply their workers.

The Mayans had a similar labor system to the Incas in a sense.  Their priest king would supervise the work, specialized workers such as architects worked on the design, and a large group of unskilled laborers did the brute force work. 

Inca Building Materials

Inca constructions were most often made of stones collected from fields and laid in mortar.  After covering rough walls with mud or clay, the Incas would paint them to refine the appearance.

Fine masonry was used for more important constructions.  The stones were carefully shaped and fit snugly against their neighbors.

The Coricancha in Lower Cuzco is well preserved today because the Conquistadors Spanish cathedral was built over sections of it, preserving those parts of it.  These walls are made up of two different types of stone.  The lower section of the walls were constructed of finely worked stone while adobe brick makes the upper section.  Between the two, a band of gold was used to hide the joint between the two materials.

Tools of the Inca

For use on fine masonry, the Incas had tools of harder stones and bronze chisels.  They also used earthen ramps to raise large stones if more than one row was needed (similar to what may have been used in Egypt).

Unlike the Mayans, the Incas did not use logs to roll their large stones or use the plumb bob for building their constructions.  One thing that they did have in common with the northern cultures, was that none had iron tools, rulers, or the square.   Though the Inca has a very precise record system in the Quipu.

Inca Construction Strength

Conclusion

The Inca culture used a system in which the demands of building were shared throughout the empire.  By using this thoughtful system of labor and pre-planned models, they were able to construct magnificent structures throughout their vast empire.  Inca's way of organizing labor, permitted massive structures to be built, while maintaining the regular infrastructure of the empire.

Inca Bibliography

• Bauer, Brian S.  The Development of the Inca State 1992.
• Bauer, Brian S.  The Sacred Landscapes of the Inca:  The Cusco Ceque System. 1998.
• Cobo, Bernabe.  Inca Religion and Customs. 1990.
• Malpass, Michael A.  Daily Life in The Inca Empire.  1996.
• Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, Maria.  HISTORY OF THE INCA REALM. 1999. 

Source: Christina Moore, The Pennsylvania State University